DIMIDIA, LLC

Lake Victoria/Transboundary Freshwater

Water cannot be created. It can only be managed.

When we look at the planet, it is obvious that we have a lot of water. In fact, the same amount of water exists today as did millions of years ago - 360 quintillion gallons. It sounds like a lot of water but in fact, the magic number for water is 3%. That is the amount of fresh water on the planet. That 3% is not uniformly distributed. Many areas have very little accessible fresh water. Most of the known underground repositories (aquifers) of water have been identified and more is being learned about how those aquifers get depleted and contaminated. The following Groundwater Map (provided by BGR) was created by WHYMAP - a team led by UNESCO and the Commission for the Geological Map of the World. It provides a global view of most of the groundwater systems for each continent.

The annual burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene totals 1.7 million deaths. Some 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water and 2.6 billion lack access to basic sanitation. Investments in drinking water supply and sanitation show a close correspondence with improvement in human health and economic productivity. Each person needs only 20 to 50 liters of water free of harmful contaminants each day for drinking and personal hygiene to survive, yet there remain substantial challenges to providing this basic service to large segments of the human population. Half of the urban population in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean suffers from one or more diseases associated with inadequate water and sanitation. Based on the most recent UN population projections, the future for many parts of the world looks bleak. The most alarming projection suggests that nearly 7 billion people in 60 countries will live water-scarce lives by 2050. Even under the lowest projection, just under 2 billion people in 48 countries will struggle against water scarcity in 2050.

Surface water and ground water resources must be considered as part of a single hydrologic system and must be dealt with as a unified whole in ways that take into account water quantity, water quality, and ecosystem integrity. This thinking is even more critical for trans-boundary water sources because the challenge becomes finding an appropriate balance between the desire for flexibility and protecting the resource and ecosystem at a broader level.

• Green Water / Blue Water. Ecosystems are strongly dependent on the water cycle for their very existence. At the same time, these ecosystems represent domains over which precipitation is processed and transferred back to the atmosphere as "green water" (through evapotranspiration drawn from soils and plant canopies in natural ecosystems and rain-fed agriculture). The remainder runs off as "blue water" which constitutes the renewable water supply that can pass to downstream users—both aquatic ecosystems and humans such as farmers who irrigate.
• The 3% Breakdown. Nearly all water on Earth is contained in the oceans, leaving only 2.5 - 3.0% as fresh water. Of this small percentage, nearly three quarters is frozen, and most of the remainder is present as soil moisture or lies deep in the ground. The principal sources of fresh water that are available to society reside in lakes, rivers, wetlands, and shallow groundwater aquifers—all of which make up but a tiny fraction (tenths of 1%) of all water on Earth. This amount is regularly renewed by rainfall and snowfall and is therefore available on a sustainable basis.
• 50: Percentage of Earth’s fresh water supply found in South America.
• 25: Percentage found in Asia.
• 25: Percentage found in rest of world (North and Central America, Europe, Australia, Africa, and the Middle East).
• There are two important classes of groundwater. The first is renewable groundwater - closely linked to the cycling of fresh water, through which the ground is periodically replenished when sufficient precipitation is available to recharge soils or when floodplains become inundated. The second, fossil groundwater - is typically locked in deep aquifers that often have little if any longterm net recharge. Whenever this is extracted, it is functionally "mined". This is a particularly acute problem in arid regions, where replenishment times can be on the order of thousands of years.
• Major aquifers are tapped on every continent and ground-water is the primary source of drinking water for more than 1.5 billion people worldwide. The aquifer that lies beneath the Huang-Huai-Hai plain in eastern China alone supplies drinking water to nearly 160 million people. Asia as a whole relies on its ground-water for nearly one-third of its drinking water supply. Some of the largest cities in the developing world - Jakarta, Dhaka, Lima, and Mexico City, among them - depend on aquifers for almost all their water. And in rural areas, where centralized water supply systems are undeveloped, groundwater is typically the source of water. More than 95% of the rural U.S. populations depends on groundwater for drinking.
• Drainage Water (water that is abstracted but not consumed) infiltrates the soil and is stored as groundwater or flows back through drains into rivers. This drainage water is generally of a lower quality than the water originally withdrawn owing to contamination by agrochemicals and salts leached from the soil profile. Compared with a return flow of 50% of the water withdrawn for agriculture, 90% of the water for domestic use is returned to rivers and aquifers as wastewater, while industry typically returns up to 95%.
• On almost every continent, many major aquifers are being drained faster than their natural rate of recharge. Groundwater depletion is most severe in parts of India, China, the USA, North Africa, and the Middle East.
• In 1995, over 400 million people lived in countries experiencing water stress or water scarcity. By 2025, 4 billion people will live in countries where constraints on water supply will give rise to serious social, public health, economic, and environmental problems.
• The 21st century is the century in which the overriding problem is one of water quality and management. Water management has evolved, but in 2003 some 25,000 people are still dying every day from malnutrition and 6,000 people, mostly children under the age of five, are dying from water-related diseases.
• Water is a $400 billion global industry.
• Contemporary water withdrawal is approximately 3 600 cu km per year globally or 25% of the continental runoff to which the majority of the population has access during the year.
• In temperate, humid climates, about 40% of precipitation ends up in the groundwater. For Mediterranean-type climates the figure is 10-20%. For the truly dry climates, the value can be virtually zero.
• The distribution of fresh water is uneven in space and time. More than 1 billion people live under hydrologic conditions that generate no appreciable supply of renewable fresh water. An additional 4 billion (65% of world population) is served by only 50% of total annual renewable runoff that is positioned in dry to only moderately wet conditions, with concomitant pressure on that resource base. Only about 15% live with relative water abundance.
• Four out of every five people live downstream of, and are served by, renewable freshwater services. This represents 75% of the total supply.
• The world's watersheds are under increasing pressure. One major set of pressures has come from land-use changes and land degradation - particularly deforestation - along the watershed. It has been estimated by some scholars that a third of the world's watersheds have lost more than 75% of their original forest cover and that 17 rivers have lost more than 95%.
• Many diverse industries (e.g., food, pharmaceuticals, computer chips, electric-power generation) require purified water that is treated to much higher standards than drinking water. In North America and around the world, industrial customers are increasingly interested in how water quality affects the economics of their manufacturing operations.
• Water Salinity. Salinity is expressed by the amount of salt found in 1,000 grams of water. 1 gram of salt in 1,000 grams of water has the salinity of 1 part per thousand - or 1 ppt. Freshwater is defined as having low salt concentration - usually less than 1%. Aquatic plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas on high salt concentration (ocean). Average Ocean salinity is 35 ppt. This number varies between about 32 and 37 ppt. The Black Sea is so diluted by river runoff, its average salinity is only 16 ppt. Brackish Water has a salinity of between 0.5 ppt and 17 ppt. Estuaries (where fresh river water meets salty ocean water) are examples of brackish waters. At 12-25% salinity, the Great Salt Lake is one of the saltiest seas in the world. Salinity of the Dead Sea (today) ranges from 26-35%. The Mediterranean Sea has a salinity of approximately 40 ppt.
• Trans-Boundary Rivers are also called International River Basins (IRB) (shared by two or more countries). There are: 63 IRBs in each of Africa and Asia; 69 in Europe; 65 in Latin America; and 19 in North America.
• Almost 40% of the world’s population lives in nearly 280 river basins that are shared by more than two countries (Trans-Boundary River or IRB). Twenty-two countries around the world are heavily dependent upon the flow of water originating in other upstream nations for a large part of their supply.
• The Ganges-Brahmaputra, Han, Incomati, Kunene, Kura-Araks, Lake Chad, La Plata, Lempa, Limpopo, Mekong, Ob (Ertis), Okavango, Orange, Salween, Senegal, Tumen and Zambezi river basins have all been identified as “basins at risk” of international conflict.
• Worldwide, some 2.7 million tons (2,45 MT) of plastic are used to bottle water each year. Approximately 1.5 million barrels of oil—enough to run 100,000 cars for a whole year—are used to make plastic water bottles, while transporting these bottles burns even more oil.
• Consumers spend a collective $100 billion every year on bottled water.
• Between 6 and 9 million people die annually of thirst.
• The rate of ground-water renewal is very slow in comparison with that of surface water. Some aquifers recharge fairly quickly. The average recycling time for groundwater is estimated at 1,400 years as opposed to only 20 days for river water.
• River Anatomy 101. The region from which the river collects its water supply is called a drainage basin or catchement. It is divided from other catchements by a watershed. The catchment areas of the nearly 280 global, trans-boundary rivers comprise nearly 42% of the land surface of the earth. This area also includes nearly 40% of the world's population and contribute nearly 80% of freshwater flow.
• Only 1% of Earth's surface is covered by inland waters.
• Worldwide, irrigation is by far the biggest drain on freshwater. It accounts for about 70% of the water drawn from rivers and wells each year. That percentage rises up to 95% in Asia and West Asia.
• On average, a ton of water used in industry generates roughly $14,000 worth of output - about 70 times as much profit as the same amount of water used to grow grain.
• 2.8 billion people—or 44% of the world's population—live in areas of high water stress, according to a March report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development (OECD). This figure is expected to rise to 3.9 billion by 2030 unless major new water-use policies are implemented. Much of the stress will occur in India, China, and other parts of the developing world, but water stress will also rise in more developed nations.
• It has been estimated that today more than 2 billion people are affected by water shortages in over 40 countries: 1.1 billion do not have sufficient drinking water and 2.4 billion have no provision for sanitation.
• Water Poverty Index (WPI) was developed by the UK's Centre for Ecology & Hydrology by a team of 31 researchers in consultation with more than 100 water professionals from around the world. 147 countries are graded according to five different measures: resources; access; capacity; use and environmental impact - to show where the best and worst water situations exist. According to the WPI, the top 10 water-richest nations in the world are, in descending order: Finland, Canada, Iceland, Norway, Guyana, Suriname, Austria, Ireland, Sweden and Switzerland. The 10 countries lowest on the Water Poverty Index are all in the developing world -- Haiti, Niger, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Malawi, Djibouti, Chad, Benin, Rwanda, and Burundi.
• The World Bank reports that a third of public utilities in developing countries lose up to 40% of their water due to poor infrastructure and mismanagement.
• One important aspect of water quality is the avoidance of changes in its chemical composition.
• Salt Wedge Estuaries occur when the mouth of a river flows directly into salt water. The circulation is controlled by the river that pushes back the seawater. This creates a sharp boundary that separates an upper less salty layer from an intruding wedge-shaped salty bottom layer. The Mississippi River is a good example of a salt wedge estuary since its size allows for a detailed observation of the interface between the salt wedge and the freshwater layer. The outflow from the Amazon River, the largest estuarine system of the world, is so huge that it distorts any view of the salt wedge structure significantly. The Amazon River carries about 20% of the world's river run-off. The shear magnitude of this freshwater outflow guarantees that no salt water ever penetrates past the river mouth.
• By 2020, between 75 and 250 million of people are projected to be exposed to increased water stress due to climate change.
• Worldwide, floods were the most reported disaster event; the year 2000 saw 153 flood events alone while in terms of loss of life, droughts claimed the greatest number of victims.
• Without reliable access to water, all one is left with is poverty and ill health. Without access to energy, people are unable to take advantage of the opportunities offered by modern technology.
• Changes in precipitation patterns and the disappearance of glaciers are projected to significantly affect water availability for human consumption, agriculture and energy generation.
• All countries are going to have to spend a greater proportion of their GDP on water infrastructure in the future than they have in the past. Financing urban water infrastructure is not easy: typically investments involve a high capital outlay and long pay-back periods, as well as greater risks and lower rates of return than other forms of infrastructure. The municipal water sector accounts for 40% of the total water usage in the Unites States. The Environmental Protection Agency says that the U.S. water industry needs $500 billion of infrastructure investment over the next twenty years.
• “Unaccounted for water” (UFW) is the difference between the amount of water sold and the amount of water supplied, expressed as a percentage of the amount of water supplied. Well-managed systems achieve UFW values of 10 to 15%. In developing nations, the UFW values range from 39 to 52%.
• By the year 2050, untreated wastewater could reduce the world’s freshwater resources by as much as 18,000 km3 annually (UNESCO-WWAP 2003). That is the equivalent to almost four times the annual flow of the Amazon River.
• The same amount of water exists on Earth today as millions of years ago - roughly 360 quintillion gallons. It evaporates, coalesces in clouds, falls as rain, seeps into the earth, and emerges in springs to feed rivers and lakes, in an endless hydrologic cycle.
• Water and Energy are closely connected by two fundamental truths:
• Energy is Required to Make Use of Water. For humans to take advantage of water resources, energy from some source is needed to lift, move, process and treat the substance at every phase of its extraction, distribution, and use.
• Water is Needed to Make Use of Energy. Water is also used in the generation of most forms of traditional turbine-produced electricity.
• Top Global Water Companies
• Veolia / Water services subsidiary of Veolia Environnement of France. World's largest water company provides water and wastewater services to more than 110 million people and 40,000 businesses in roughly 100 countries. Veolia Water North America is North America’s leading water services provider (designing, building, operating and managing various types of facilities, programs and systems) for local and federal governments and business and industry. 
• Suez  / an international industrial and services group that designs sustainable and innovative solutions for the management of public utilities as a partner of public authorities, businesses and individuals. The Group aims to answer essential needs in electricity, natural gas, energy services, water and waste management by providing for cities and businesses as they are challenged with new constraints tied to demographic growth, urbanization, higher standards of living and environmental protection. To meet their expanding needs efficiently, the Group has focused its businesses on five major challenges: local rootedness, market shifts, the fight against climate change, resource preservation and the quality of life of populations.
• Ferrovial / Ferrovial Agromán, with more than 80 years of experience, is one of the world's leading Construction Company. Its subsidiary Cadagua, with more than 30 years experience, is specialized in “turn key” contracts, operation and maintenance and BOOT´s of all types of water treatment plants and waste treatment, with outstanding track record in reverse osmosis desalination projects performed.
• Sabesp / Brazil's largest water company, serving 22.7 million people. SBS provides water via about 6.6 million connections. The company also offers sewage services through about 4.8 million connections and more than 400 treatment plants. The state of Brazil owns a 50.3% stake in SBS. SBS has the leadership position in Sao Paulo water services and aims to increase its customer base by 2 million during 2007-2010.
• Severn Trent / Severn Trent Services is one of the world’s leading suppliers of water and waste water treatment solutions. Headquartered in the US, it has a growing presence in Europe, the Middle East and Asia. The business has three main divisions: Water Purification, Operating Services and Analytical Services.
• ITT Corp / The world's premier supplier of fluid systems and solutions to move and control water and other fluids in the following markets including: clean water, wastewater, building trades, mining, power, chemical processing, pulp & paper, oil & gas, agriculture, bio/pharmaceutical, and leisure marine.
• Pentair / a leader in the water, wastewater pump industry and general flow technologies serving a range of markets through residential, commercial and municipal applications for sump, well and waste water; turf and agricultural spraying and irrigation; fire protection; car wash; marine; general industrial; heating, ventilation and air conditioning; and water treatment.

• The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System in the North Eastern Sahara of Africa occupies an area of nearly
  2.2 million sq km and extends between Egypt, Libya, Sudan, and Northern Chad. The volume of the aquifer in storage represents the largest freshwater mass in the world.
• Only about 60% of the 680 million people in Sub-Sahara Africa have access to safe water supplies.
• African lakes contain about 7,200 cubic miles (30 009 cu km) of water - the largest volume on any continent.
• Lake Victoria in Africa is the largest tropical lake and the second largest fresh water lake in the world.
• About 96% of Egypt is desert. The Nile is Egypt's most important feature. Rainfall is minimal: Cairo receives only 60 mm (2.5 inches) annually, while the desert often has no rain at all. A narrow stretch of the Mediterranean coast is milder and wetter, with 250 mm (10 inches) of rain a year.
• Within the 53 African countries, 63 river basins cross international borders. Thus, there are more transboundary river basins than sovereign states. These river basins cover two-thirds of the continent’s surface area, in which three-quarters of the human population lives, accounting collectively for a staggering 93% of all surface water.
• Southern Africa has an inherently low conversion rate of rainfall-to-runoff - which affects both surface water river flows and groundwater recharge. Of the rainfall that falls to earth in an average year, only a small portion is converted to water flowing into rivers. Southern Africa - along with Australia - has the lowest conversion of rainfall-to-runoff in the world.
  
  

• Nile / 6671km / Burundi, Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda, Sudan, Egypt
• Congo (Zaire) / 4374 km / Dem. Rep. of Congo, Rep. of Congo, Angola
• Niger / 4184 km / Guinea, Mali, Niger, Benin, Nigeria
• Zambezi  / 2736 km / Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique
• Ubangi-Uele / 2300 km / Dem. Rep. of Congo, Central African Republic, Rep. of Congo
• Orange / 2092 km / Lesotho, South Africa, Namibia
• Wabe Shebele / 2050 km / Ethiopia, Somalia

• A few hundred square miles of the Himalayas are the source for all the major rivers of Asia - the Ganges, the Yellow River, the Yangtze - where 3 billion people live. That's almost half the world's population!
• The Aral Sea is the largest inland body of salty reservoirs in the world.
• Jordan is one of the world’s top ten water-poor countries.
• In India, the leading country in total irrigated area and the world's third largest grain producer, the number of shallow tube-wells used to draw groundwater surged from 3,000 in 1960 to 6 million in 1990.
• Water produced from desalination in Saudi Arabia has reached 3 billion cubic meters per year and is growing (2006) making that country the largest producer of desalinated water in the world.
• China has about as much water as Canada, but a population 40 times as large.
• China faces an acute water challenge. It makes up 21% of humanity but controls just 7% of the water supply. The water basin in parts of northern China is falling by one meter a year due to overpumping. In Heibei province the aquifer fell three meters last year. An increasing number of rivers are running dry.
• Lake Baikal in southern Siberia is the deepest lake in the world - 1 637 meters (5,371 ft) and the largest freshwater lake in the world by volume - holding approximately twenty percent of the world's total surface fresh water. Its bottom sits at 4,215 feet (1 285 meters) below sea level. It is estimated to be 25–30 million years old, making it one of the most ancient lakes in geological history.
• Some 10% of Israel's water is desalinated.